2. 'The machine/ organism relationships are obsolete, unnecessary' writes Haraway. In what ways have our relations to machines been theorized?
1. Mertz, David (2008). “Cyborgs”. <http://gnosis.cx/publish/mertz/Cyborgs.pdf> (accessed 16 March 2011)
“Cyborg”, which was initiated by Manfred Clynes and Nathan Kline, as a portmanteau of Norbert Weiner’s “cybernetics” with “organism.” Through the electrical, mechanical, and computational and so on to advance the function of human. It is being usual and common in the society, such as cyberpunk (fiction), cyber-feminism (theory), cyberspace (electronic networks), and cybersex (shared fantasy). By the technology and cyborgs, it talks over on human health and longevity frequently. Infer a generality, the technologies are existing and physically manipulated around the humans in the last several thousand years. The transhumanism purpose of extending human-machine interactivity. In the exact of cybernetics stem, it must have the highly significant feedback mechanism in the aspects of biology. For the cultural imagery of cyborgs, it has been a dystopian in the description of the literary, its the symbols of the destructive of socially industrial and post- industrial technologies as the same time. Such as, to describe the cyborgs from Fritz Lang’s Metropolis to the powerful evil in some films, like Terminator. Also, the judgment of ethical of genetic cyborgs are arising, especially, the viewpoints of religion as the probability of genetic and the biological manipulation are raising. In the reverse side, cyborgs have portrayed as a cartoonish superheros in the literary too. For some intellectuals, like the doctor, puts the positive side on cyborgs, which are representing the active ability of technologies. As a cyborg can break down the standard of gender, class, race and subaltern status and so on.
2. Verdoux, Philippe (2010). “(Post)Human-Technology Relations”. IEET. <http://ieet.org/index.php/IEET/more/verdoux20100329/>(accessed 16 March 2011)
Technology is as important as it can affect the human condition and get over human’s limitations. We could instantiate the relations between human and technology obviously. Through the “subjective” and “objectivist” ways to approche this topic. By Don lhde, addressed that four-way typology. When a device becomes “incorporated”, happen the embodiment relations, the phenomenological which is “part of” and experientially (quasi-)transparent for the human user; next is “Hermeneutic”, which means the machines are the representation of the external world, like compasses. The other one is alterity relations, such as “Boston Dynamics BigDog”. And the last one, background relations which conscious experience will dull into the background. The other philosopher, Peter-Paul Verbeek proposed ‘Intentionality’ and two human-technology relations: cyborg, a cohesive hybrid with physically merged; the composite relations, technologies construct reality effectually. For the relationship of technology and human body, Arnold Gehlen initiated that “organ relief” (the wheel), “organ substitution” (the spear) and “organ strengthening” (the microscope). To expand, in Darwinian theory, supposed the organisms and environments, as follows, extensions, sense of retained the extended phenotype,organism, and mind, go beyond the traditional; substitutions, replaces the biological’s feature; and enhancements, augment or improve one’s some features. Last, “Cyborgization” provides the conceivable path to posthumanity, but it does not guarantee the realization of posthumans, however, not assure the realization of posthumans. In conclude, technologies can alter human and hybrids of the “natural” and “artificial.”
3. Sax, Boria (2010). “The Posthumanism of Roberto Marchesini”. <http://www.depauw.edu/humanimalia/issue02/pdfs/Sax.pdf> (accessed 16 March 2011)
“Posthumanism” can be defined as “after humanism” or “after human beings.” Roberto Marchesini directed it to the end of humanism, criticizing of humanism is qualified, an intellectual movement of the Renaissance yet which cause the religious conflicts, also he hope that can maintain it as openness and lenient. Through Marchesini’s theory, for the construction of human identity, are fixed position by machines and animals. Technology, new inventions can magnify human power, by contraries, destroy the autonomy of human, also, perplex to recognize who is the “slaves” between technology and human. Moreover, the relationship of human symbiosis and animal becomes psychological. “What does being “human” mean?”, the answers are always provisional, which may define on humanity ethnicity rather than on to the animals and machines. By Poststructuralist theorists, concept of non-human alterity, which rejected binary polarities. Marchesini consent that, “a sense of human solidarity without hostility towards either technology or the natural world.” Marchesini’s “zooanthopologia” and Donna Haraway and Glen A Mazis’s “Anthrozoology” also insist on human identity is a product, as the changing relationships between human and other creatures. To conclude, the thoery of “posthumanism” of Marchesini as a variant of structural anthropology, a form of neo-totemism, and brings up the meaningful contemporary developments are without trite.
4. Kiesler, Sara, Pamela Hinds(2004). “Human-Robot Interaction”. <http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.91.7544&rep=rep1&type=pdf> (accessed 16 March 2011)
Human-computer interaction (HCI) manifested that the gain ground and of interactions between human and computer which based on technologies, rise and develop rapidly. The artificial intelligence, speech simulation and remote controls provides the momentous effect for interaction community of human and technology. The autonomous robots can enhance, facilitate, provide convenience for the high-interaction services of human daily life. Also, they need to deliver on social and intellectual on the physical tasks. HCI is the factor of human which supplies the information of human-robot interaction. The trait of it includes three reasons: it is different than the other computer technology which encouraged the anthropomorphic mental models. Next, it is to be fully mobiled. Third, the robots can make decisions, control and learn when they are processed in the limit. It is proposed the several articles of human-robot interaction, which embrace: The first one, from the essay by Sebastian Thrun, who advised a useful framework among industrial robots, professional service robots and personal service robots, for example, Forlizzi, DiSalvo, and Gemperle offer the robots for the elderly people. Second, by Kanda, Hirano, and Eaton, provide two robots for the Japanese children and reflected that the student can learn from a humanoid robot. Third, the article about the use of robots in the disaster search and rescued by Burke, Murphy, Coovert, and Riddle. Fourth, we might know that the different views of search and rescue robots by Yanco, Drury, and Scholtz. Those of the research verify that how the interaction of human and robot. It is significant of roboticists, behavioral, social scientists and designers that interdisciplinary collaboration.
5. Dominguez, Paige (2011). “Sex with Robots” could ruin human relationships”. Sonoma state star. <http://www.sonomastatestar.com/features/sex-with-robots-could-ruin-human-relationships-1.2107033> (accessed 16 March 2011)
As the definition of sex doll is "a type of sex toy in the size and shape of a sexual partner for aid in masturbation." by Wikipedia, which means the human could have the sexual relations with the “high-tech computer”. By John Sullins, assistant professor of philosophy, the article about "The Ethics of Robots and Sex", explained that it is grasp at the weaknesses of human's psychological successfully by the engineers who create the emotionally satisfying robot and brought up that “Humans have a tendency to anthropomorphize things in their environment”. Nowadays, we can programme the characteristics of model of sex doll, for instance, the “AVN Adult Entertainment Exposition” in 2010, even furnished the artificial circulatory system which can control the temperature like human. Furthermore, Sullins offers that it can terminate the pedophilia, prostitution, provide the healthy sex lives as well. As "Plato argues that in life, humans should not just try to obtain sexual gratification, but they should try to attain the erotic." The concept of “erotic” would convey a philosophically higher place, heighten the expectations of love of human. To sum up, the robot would replace human relationships as intimating with an animated machine, causing the social isolation as well.
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